(i) Major industries: Cotton and metal industries were the most dynamic industries in Britain. Cotton was the leading sector in the first phase of industrialisation up to the 1840s. But the iron and steel industry led the way after 1840. With the expansion of railways in England from the 1840s and in the colonies from the 1860s the demand for iron and steel increase rapidly. By 1873. Britain was exporting iron and steel worth about 577 million, double the value of its cotton export.
(ii) Domination of traditional industry: The modern machinery and industries could not easily displace traditional industries. Even at the end of the nineteenth century, less than 20 percent of the total workforce was employed in technologically advanced industrial sectors. Textile was a dynamic sector, but a large portion of the output was produced not within factories, but outside, within the domestic units.
(iii) Base for growth: The pace of change in the 'traditional' industries was not set by steam powered cotton or metal industries. They were the ordinary and small innovations which built up the basis of growth in many non-mechanised sectors such as food processing, building, pottery, glass work, tanning, furniture making and production of implementing sectors.
(iv) New inventions: A series of inventions the eighteenth century increased the efficiency of each step of the production process (carding, twisting and spinning end rolling). They enhanced the output per worker, enabling each worker to produce more and they made possible the production of stronger threads and yarn. Then Richard Arkwright created the cotton mill.

(i) Expensive new technology: New technologies and machines were expensive, so the producers and the industrialists were cautious about using them.
(ii) Costlier repair: The machines often broke down and the repair was costly.
(iii) Less effective: They were not as effective as their inventors and manufacturers claimed.
(iv) Availability of cheap workers: Poor peasants and migrants moved to cities in large numbers in search of jobs. So they supply of workers was more than demand. Therefore, workers were available at low wages.
(v) Uniform machine-made goods: a range of products could be produced only with and labour. Machines were oriented to producing uniforms, standardised goods for a mass market. But the demand in the market was often for goods with intricate designs and specific shapes.
In the mid-nineteenth century, Britain for instance 500 varieties of hammers were produced, and 15 kinds of axes.these required human skill, not mechanical technology.

(i) Expensive new technology:New technologies and machines were expensive, so the producers and the industrialists were cautious about using them.
(ii) Costlier repair: The machines often broke down and the repair was costly.
(iii) Less effective: They were not as effective as their inventors and manufacturers claimed.
(iv) Availability of cheap workers: Poor peasants and migrants moved to cities in large numbers in search of jobs. So they supply of workers was more than demand. Therefore, workers were available at low wages.
(v) Uniform machine-made goods: a range of products could be produced only with and labour. Machines were oriented to producing uniforms, standardised goods for a mass market. But the demand in the market was often for goods with intricate designs and specific shapes.
In the mid-nineteenth century, Britain for instance 500 varieties of hammers were produced, and 15 kinds of axes these required human skill, not mechanical technology.

(i) Growing International Market: In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, merchants from the towns in Europe began moving to the countryside, supplying money to peasants and artisans, persuading them to produce for an international market.
(ii) Increase In demand: With the expansion of world trade and the acquisition of colonies in different pans of the world, the demand for goods began growing. It was controlled by merchants and .the goods were produced by a vast number of producers working within their family farms, not in factories.
(iii) Proto-industrial System: The expansion market and demanded to proto-industrial growth which provided a base to Industrial Revolution.
(iv) New Inventions: A series of inventions in the eighteenth century increased the efficiency of each step of the production process (carding, twisting and spinning, and rolling). They enhanced the output per worker, enabling each worker to produce more and they made possible the production or stronger threads and yarn. Then Richard Arkwright created the cotton mill.
(v) Availability of Capital: The vast amount of capital which England had accumulated out of profits of her growing trade enabled her to make large expenditure on machinery and buildings. This led to new technological developments.
(vi) Availability of Raw Material: The availability of coal and iron ores in large quantities greatly helped the growth of numerous industries in England.

(i) Impact on cottagers and peasants: After the disappearing of open field system cottagers and poor peasants 'who had earlier depended on common lands for their survival. gathering their firewood. berries. vegetables. hay and straw, had to now look for alternative sources of income. Many had tiny plots of land which could not provide work for all members of the household. So when merchants can around and offered advances to produce good for them, peasant households eagerly agreed. By working for the merchants. they could remain in the countryside and continue to cultivate their small plots. Income from proto-industrial production supplemented their shrinking income from cultivation. It also allowed them a fuller use of their family labour resources.
(ii) Closed relationship between countryside and towns: Within this system a close relationship developed between the town and the countryside. Merchants were based in towns but the work was done mostly in the countryside.
(iii) Role of merchants: The whole system of production was controlled by merchants and the goods were produced by a vast number of producers working within their family farms not in factories. At each stage of production 20 to 25 workers were employed by each merchant.
(iv) Market: With the expansion of world trade and the acquisition of colonies in different parts of the world. the demand for goods began growing. So the Merchants were producing these goods for international market.
(v) Not factories: The goods were no: produced in factories by the cottagers and His peasants and their families.

(i) Disappearing open field system: In the countryside, the open field system was prevailing. i.e land was free and anyone could use it for production. But as the population increased, the open field system started disappearing. The rich landlords started enclosing the open fields.
(ii) Cottagers and poor peasants: They had earlier depended on common lands for their survival. gathering the firewood, berries. vegetables. hay and straw. Now they had to look for alternative sources of income.
(iii) Small fields: As most of the land was acquired by the rich landlords, the poor had tiny plots of land which could not provide work for all the members of the .household. So when merchants came around and offered advances to produce goods for them, peasant households eagerly agreed.
(iv) Full utilisation of family labour resources: By working for the merchants, the poor peasants and the artisans could continue to remain in the countryside, and cultivate their small plots.
(v) Income: Income from proto-industrial production supplemented their shrinking income from cultivation. It also allowed them a fuller use of their family labour resources.

(i) Disappearing open field system: In the countryside, the open field system was prevailing. i.e land was free and anyone could use it for production. But as the population increased, the open field system started disappearing. The rich landlords started enclosing the open fields.
(ii) Cottagers and poor peasants: They had earlier depended on common lands for their survival. gathering the firewood, berries. vegetables. hay and straw. Now they had to look for alternative sources of income.
(iii) Small fields: As most of the land was acquired by the rich landlords, the poor had tiny plots of land which could not provide work for all the members of the .household. So when merchants came around and offered advances to produce goods for them, peasant households eagerly agreed.
(iv) Full utilisation of family labour resources: By working for the merchants, the poor peasants and the artisans could continue to remain in the countryside, and cultivate their small plots.
(v) Income: Income from proto-industrial production supplemented their shrinking income from cultivation. It also allowed them a fuller use of their family labour resources.

The earlier phase of industrialisation in which large scale production in was carried out for international market not at factories but in decentralised units.
(i) Huge demand: The world trade expanded at a very fast rate during the 17^th and the 18^th centuries. The acquisition of colonies was also responsible for the increase in demand. The town producers failed to produce the required quantity.
(ii) Powerful town producers:
(a) The town producers were very powerful,
(b) The producers could not expand the production will. This was because in the towns, urban crafts and trade guilds were powerful.These were associations of producers that trained crafts people, maintained control over production, regulated competition and prices, and restricted the entry of new people within the trade.
(iii) Monopoly rights: The rulers granted different guilds the monopoly right to produces and trade in specific products. It was therefore difficult for new merchants to set up business in towns. So they turned to the countryside.
(iv) New economic situation in the countryside: Open fields were disappearing in the countryside and the common were enclosed. Cottagers and poor peasants who were earlier depended on common lands became jobless. So when merchants came around and offered advances to produce, peasants households eagerly agreed.

The earlier phase of industrialisation in which large scale production in was carried out for international market not at factories but in decentralised units.
(i) Huge demand: The world trade expanded at a very fast rate during the 17^th and the 18^th centuries. The acquisition of colonies was also responsible for the increase in demand. The town producers failed to produce the required quantity.
(ii) Powerful town producers:
(a) The town producers were very powerful,
(b) The producers could not expand the production will. This was because in the towns, urban crafts and trade guilds were powerful. These were associations of producers that trained crafts people, maintained control over production, regulated competition and prices, and restricted the entry of new people within the trade.
(iii) Monopoly rights: The rulers granted different guilds the monopoly right to produces and trade in specific products. It was therefore difficult for new merchants to set up business in towns. So they turned to the countryside.
(iv) New economic situation in the countryside: Open fields were disappearing in the countryside and the common were enclosed. Cottagers and poor peasants who were earlier depended on common lands became jobless. So when merchants came around and offered advances to produce, peasants households eagerly agreed.