Charles Dickens was the foremost English novelist of the Victorian era.  He wrote about the terrible effects of industrialisation on people's live and characters.  His novels Hard Times and Oliver Twist became world famous,
(i) Hard Times: His novel Hard Times (1854) describes Coketown, a fictitious industrial town, as a grim place full of machinery, smoking chimneys, rivers polluted purple and buildings that all looked the same.  Here workers are known as 'hands', as if they had no identity other than as operators of machines.  Dickens criticised not just the greed for profits but also the ideas that reduced human beings into simple instruments of production.
(ii) Oliver Twist : In other novels too, Dickens focused on the terrible conditions of urban life under industrial capitalism. His Oliver Twist (1838) is the tale of a poor orphan who lived in a world of petty criminals and beggars.  Brought up in a cruel workhouse, Oliver was finally adopted by a wealthy man and lived happily ever after.

India has been a democracy since it won independence in 1947. Sixty three years have not shaken the roots of democracy in our country. First of all, India has given equal rights and freedom to every citizen. Fundamental rights are given by the Constitution to all the people. There is universal adult franchise which gives every citizen a right to vote in elections. This has made the political parties to reach out to millions of people located in urban, rural or slum areas. The citizens are also now aware of the power they have to change governments and disapprove their policies. Government has taken measures to protect the weaker section of society. They are given reservation of seats in the Parliament, State Assemblies and local bodies. Seats are reserved for women in the Panchayati Raj institutions. There is full freedom of thought, speech and writing and people can form and express their opinions without fear. There is Freedom of Press. The press can shape public opinion by giving unbiased news about issues facing the country. India has a federal system where power is shared both horizontally and vertically. People have a say in decision-making right from the village panchayat to the top. All these factors have kept India a united democracy.

(a) Social division takes place when some social difference overlaps with other differences. The difference between the Blacks and Whites becomes a social division in the US because the Blacks tend to be poor, homeless and are discriminated.
(b) In our country, Dalits tend tie be poor and landless. They often face discrimination and injustice. Situations of this kind produce social divisions, when one kind of social difference becomes more important than the other and people start feeling that they belong to different communities.
(c) If social differences cross cut one another, it is difficult to differentiate one group of people against the other. It means that, groups that share a common interest on one issue are likely to be in different sides on a different issue
(d) In Northern Ireland, class and religion overlap with each other. If you are Catholic, you are also more likely to be poor, and you may have suffered a history of discrimination.
(e) In the Netherlands, class and religion tend to cut across each other.
(f) Catholics and Protestants are about equally likely to be poor or rich. (g) The result is that Catholics and Protestants have had conflicts in Northern Ireland, while they do not do so in the Netherlands.
(h) Overlapping social differences create possibilities of deep social divisions and tensions. Crosscutting social differences are easier to accommodate. ​​​​​

(a) Post-independent India witnessed intensive industrialization and urbanization, creating vast opportunities.
(b) The ever-increasing number of industries has made matters worse by exerting pressure on existing on existing freshwater resources.
(c) Industries, being heavy users of water, also required power to run them.
(d) Moreover, multiplying urban centres with large and dense populations and urban lifestyles have not only added to water and energy requirements but have further aggravated the problem.
(e) The housing societies or colonies in the cities have their own groundwater pumping devices to meet their water needs beyond overexploited their requirements.
(f) The fragile water resources are being overexploited and have caused their depletion in several of these cities.

(i)There are two or more levels (or tiers) of government
(ii)Different tiers of government govern the same citizens, but each tier has its own jurisdiction in specific matters of legislation, taxation and administration
(iii)The jurisdictions of the respective levels or tiers of government are specified in the constitution. So the existence and authority of each tier of government is constitutionally guaranteed.
(iv)The fundamental provisions of the constitution cannot be unilaterally changed by one level of government. Such changes require the consent of both the levels of government.
(v)Courts have the power to interpret the constitution and the powers of different levels of government. The highest court acts as an umpire if disputes arise between different levels of government in the exercise of their respective powers.
(vi)Sources of revenue for each levels of government are clearly specified to ensure its financial autonomy.

It refers to the utilization of land for various purposes such as cultivation grazing of animals construction of roads etc.
Factors
1) Topography
2) Climate
3) Human Factor
4) Accessibility

1. Individuals resources: Owned privately by individual. Example-houses, pasture etc
2. Community owned resources: accessible to all the members of the Community. Example -Play ground park etc.
3. National resources: within the political boundaries of the country. Example: Minerals, forests etc.
4. International resources: The oceanic resources beyond 200Km of the Exclusive Economic Zone belong to international institutions.

(i) The economy immediately affected Indian Trade, as India's exports and imports nearly halved during 1928-1934.
(ii) Agriculture prices fell sharply, but the colonial government refused to reduce revenues.
(iii) Peasants producing for the world markets were worst hit.
(iv) Raw jute was produced, processed in the industries to make gunny bags. Its exports collapsed and prices fell by 60% peasants of Bengal fell into debt traps.
(v) Peasants used up their savings mortgaged lands and sold their precious jewellery to meet their expenses.

(a) The biological loss is strongly correlated with the loss of cultural diversity.
(b) These losses have increasingly marginalized and impoverished many indigenous and other forest-dependent communities, who directly depend on various components of the forest and wildlife for food, drink, medicine, culture, spirituality, etc.
(c) As these resources are depleted, the drudgery of women increases.
(d) This causes serious health problems for women and negligence of home and children because of the increased hours of work.
(e) The indirect impact of degradation such as severe drought or deforestation-induced floods, etc. also hits the poor the hardest.

The feeling of clear-cut expression of nationalism or collective identity came to France with the French Revolution in 1789. Political and constitutional changes led to the transfer of sovereignty from monarchy to a body of French citizens. Various measures and practices were introduced by French revolutionaries which proclaimed that a nation is made by its people and only they can shape up its destiny. Concept of a community, which is united under one flag and enjoying equal rights, came to create a feeling of collective identity among the French people.
(a) The ideas of la Patrie (the fatherland) and le Citoyen (the citizen?) emphasised this notion.
(b) The tricolor, new French flag, was replaced by the royal standard.
(c) Uniform laws were formulated for all its citizens under a centralised administrative system.
(d) The body of active citizens elected the Estates General and it was renamed National Assembly.
(e) New hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated in the name of the nation.