(i) Calcutta or Kolkata had a long history of air pollution. Its inhabitants inhaled grey smoke, particularly in the winter. Since the cry was built on marshy land, the resulting fog combined with smoke to generate a thick black smog.
(ii) Burning of dung and wood fuel were the main sources of air pollution.
(iii) Colonial authorities at first intended to clear the place of miasmas, or harmful vapours , but the railway lines introduced in 185, brought a dangerous new pollutant into the picture - coal from Ranging. The high content of ash in the Indian coal was a problem. many place were made to banish the dirty mills from the city, but without any results.
(iv) Calcutta (Kolkata) was the first city to get smoke nuisance legislation in 1863.
(v) The inspectors of the Bengal smoke Nuisance Commission finally managed to control the industrial smoke. Controlling domestic smoke, however, was for more difficult.

(i) Calcutta or Kolkata had a long history of air pollution. Its inhabitants inhaled grey smoke, particularly in the winter. Since the cry was built on marshy land, the resulting fog combined with smoke to generate a thick black smog.
(ii) Burning of dung and wood fuel were the main sources of air pollution.
(iii) Colonial authorities at first intended to clear the place of miasmas, or harmful vapours , but the railway lines introduced in 185, brought a dangerous new pollutant into the picture - coal from Ranging. The high content of ash in the Indian coal was a problem. Many place were made to banish the dirty mills from the city, but without any results.
(iv) Calcutta (Kolkata) was the first city to get smoke nuisance legislation in 1863.
(v) The inspectors of the Bengal smoke Nuisance Commission finally managed to control the industrial smoke. Controlling domestic smoke, however, was for more difficult.

(i) The dry encouraged spirit of Individualism
(ii) The public space became increasingly a male preserve and the domestic sphere was seen as the proper place for women.
(iii) Gradually women came to participate in the political movement for suffrage.
Values of rural life:
(i) Rural life was based on collective values.
(ii) Communities were interdependent

(i) Women as workers: Factories employed large number of women in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. With technological developments, women gradually lost their industrial jobs and were forced to work within household. The 1861 census recorded a quarter of million domestic servants in London, of whom the vast majority were women, many of them recent migrants. A large number of women used their homes to increase family income by raking in lodgers or through such activities as tailoring, washing or matchbox making. However, there was a change once again in the twentieth century. As women got employment in wartime industries and offices, they withdrew from domestic service.
(ii) Women and conservatives: Men and women did no have equal access to this new urban space. As women lost their industrial jobs and conservative people railed gainst their presence in public spaces, women were forced to withdraw into their homes. The public space became increasingly a male preserve and the domestic sphere was seen as the proper place for women.
(iii) Women and political movements: Most political movements of the nineteenth century, such as Chartism (a movement demanding the vote for all adult males and the 10-hour movement limiting hours of work in factories), mobilised large number of men. Only gradually did women come to participate in political movements for suffrage that demanded the right to vote for women or fore married women's rights to property (from the 1870s) ,
(iv) Women and ware time: The two-world wars of the 20th century once again transformed the life of women. They were employed in large numbers to meet war demands.

(i) Women as workers: Factories employed large number of women in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. With technological developments, women gradually lost their industrial jobs and were forced to work within household. The 1861 census recorded a quarter of million domestic servants in London, of whom the vast majority were women, many of them recent migrants. A large number of women used their homes to increase family income by raking in lodgers or through such activities as tailoring, washing or matchbox making. However, there was a change once again in the twentieth century. As women got employment in wartime industries and offices, they withdrew from domestic service.
(ii) Women and conservatives: Men and women did not have equal access to this new urban space. As women lost their industrial jobs and conservative people railed against their presence in public spaces, women were forced to withdraw into their homes. The public space became increasingly a male preserve and the domestic sphere was seen as the proper place for women.
(iii) Women and political movements: Most political movements of the nineteenth century, such as Chartism (a movement demanding the vote for all adult males and the 10-hour movement limiting hours of work in factories), mobilised large number of men. Only gradually did women come to participate in political movements for suffrage that demanded the right to vote for women or fore married women's rights to property (from the 1870s) ,
(iv) Women and ware time: The two- world wars of the 20th century once again transformed the life of women. They were employed in large numbers to meet war demands.