Two examples of different types of global exchange were
(i) Before the 17th century, China exported silk and pottery to Europe in exchange for gold and silver from Europe. This trade was carried out using the traditional 'silk route'.
(ii) Many common food items like potatoes, soya, groundnuts, maize, tomatoes, chillies and sweet potatoes were introduced into Europe from America, after it was discovered by Christopher Columbus at the end of the 15th century.

The global transfer of disease in the pre-modern world led to the colonisation of the Americas in the following ways
(i) The Portuguese and the Spanish had a strong army. But along with these, germs and viruses helped them in conquering parts of Americas.
(ii) As Americas was isolated earlier, the original inhabitants had no immunity against the germs and viruses present in Europe.
(iii) The diseases once introduced, spread very fast. The diseases, like smallpox affected whole communities that were paving the way for the conquest of the colonisers.
(iv) The germs were more dangerous as compared to guns and fire arms because guns could be bought or captured, but there was no way to escape from these diseases.

Two examples of impact of technology on food availability
(i) The technique of cold storage and use of refrigerated ships boosted the export of perishable foods over long distances. Meat exported from America, Australia and New Zealand could be sent to Europe where meat was not available easily or cheaply.
(ii) Faster railways, larger ships and lighter wagons enabled cheaper and quicker movement of perishable foodstuffs from far away farms to their final markets. Now the poor in Europe could add meat (even butter and egg) to their daily diet.

The three types of movements or flows in international economic exchange are
(i) Flow of Trade This refers to trade in goods like wheat, cotton etc.
Historically, fine cotton cloth was produced in India by weavers and exported to European countries. But when the industrial revolution started in Europe and the European countries imposed tariff barriers, the export of textiles dropped drastically. In fact, India started exporting raw cotton and importing mill-made cloth from England.
(ii) Flow of Labour This refers to migration of people in search of employment.
During the 19th century, a large number of Indian labourers migrated to Africa, the West Indies and other countries.
They migrated to work on plantations, in mines, in railway and road construction projects set-up by the Europeans. These Indians settled in the countries where they had gone after their contracts ended and now their descendants are found in these countries.
(iii) Flow of Capital This refers to movement of capital over long distances for short-term and long-term investments.
Groups of Indian financers, traders like the Shroffs, Chettiars, etc financed agriculture and plantations in various Asian and African countries. They use their own funds or those borrowed from European banks

The G-77 is a coalition of developing nations designed to promote its members collective, economic interest and create an enhanced joint negotiating capacity for the United Nations.
Later on, more developing countries joined the group and now it consists of about 135 countries. They have demanded a New International Economic Order (NIEO) in which they have a real control over their natural resources.
By NIEO, they got more development assistance and fairer prices for raw materials, and better access to the markets in developed countries for their manufactured goods.
G-77 was seen as a reaction to the activities of the Bretton Woods twins because
(i) The Bretton Woods twins, IMF and World Bank were mainly setup to favour the developed nations.
As a result most developing countries did not benefit from the fast growth that the Western economics experienced in the 1950s and 1960s. So, they organised themselves as a group-the group of 77 of G-77 to demanda new economic order.
(ii) The developing nations organised themselves into G-77 so as to gain real control over their natural resources.
(iii) They also wanted a better opportunity for their manufactured goods in the markets of developed nations.

Europe's poor began to eat better and live longer with the introduction of the humble potato. Ireland's poorest peasants became so dependent on potatoes that when disease destroyed the potato crop in the mid-1840s, hundreds of thousands died of starvation. These starvation deaths were called the 'Irish Potato Famine.'

The shikaripuri shroffs and Nattukottai Chettiars of India were amongst the many groups of bankers and traders who financed export agriculture in Central and Southeast Asia, using either their own funds or those borrowed from European banks.
They had a sophisticated system to transfer money over large distances, and even developed indigenous forms of corporate organisation.
India traders and moneylenders also followed European colonisers into Africa. The Hyderabadi Sindhi traders, however, ventured beyond European colonies and established flourishing emporia at busy ports worldwide. From the 1860s, they began selling local and imported curios to tourists whose numbers were beginning to swell, thanks to the development of safe and comfortable passengers vessels.

One important features of the vibrant US economy of the 1920s was mass production. A well-known pioneer of mass production was the car manufacturer Henry Ford. He adapted the assembly line production to his new car plant in Detroit.
The assembly line production forced workers to repeat a single task mechanically and continuously - such as fitting a particular part to the car - at a pace dictated by the conveyor belt. This was a way of increasing the output per worker by speeding up the pace of work.
Standing in front of conveyor belt no workers could afford to delay the motions, take a break, or even have a friendly word with a workmate. As a result, Henry Ford's cars came off the assembly line at three-minute intervals, a speed much faster than that achieved by previous methods. The T-model Ford was the world's first mass-produced car.
Mass production reduced the cost of good and this resulted in mass consumption.

(i) This reduces the shipping cost and lowered meat prices in Europe.
(ii) The poor in Europe could now consume a more varied diet.
(iii) To the earlier, monotony of Bread and Potatoes many, not all could add meat, butter or egg.
(iv) Better living conditions promoted social peace within the country and support for imperialism abroad.

Under the pressure from industrialists and urban dwellers, the British Government abolished the Corn Laws. The effects of it were
(i) Food could be imported into Britain more cheaply than it would be produced within the country.
(ii) British agriculture was unable to compete with imports. Vast Areas of land were left uncultivated and people started migrated to cities or other countries.
(iii) As food prices fell, consumption in Britain rose. Faster industrial growth in Britain also led to higher incomes and therefore more food import.
(iv)  Around the world in Eastern Europe, Russia, America and Australia land were cleared and food production expanded to meet the British demand.

Two crucial influences shaped post-war reconstruction. The first was the US's emergence as the dominant economic of the Soviet Union. It had made huge sacrifices to defeat Nazi Germany and transformed itself from a backwards agricultural country into world power during the very years when the capitalist world was trapped in the Great Depression.

The causes of the Great Depression were
(i) Conditions Created by War The Great Depression was the result of war. There was an immense industrial expansion due to the increased demand of goods supplied to the army, during the period of the First World War. After the war, the demand for these goods suddenly dropped. So, there was no demand in many industries. There was also a large fall in the agricultural prices due to reduced demand.
(ii) Over Production in Agriculture Agricultural over production was another major factor responsible for the depression. This was made worse by falling agricultural prices.
As prices fell and agricultural incomes declined, the farmers tried to increase the production. They tried to bring a larger volume of produce to the market to maintain their overall income. This act pushed down the prices of farm produce further.
(iii) Shortage of Loans In the mid-1920s, many countries financed their investments through loans from the USA.
While it was often very easy to raise loans in the USA during the boom period, lenders in the USA panicked at the first sign of trouble. Countries that depend crucially on US loans, now faced an acute crisis.
(iv) Collapse of Banking System With the fall in prices and the prospect of a depression i.e. banks in the USA slashed domestic lending and some stopped bank loans, thousands of banks went bankrupt and were forced to close down. Factories closed, leading to unemployment, which further aggravated the crises. The US banking system collapsed.
(v) Large-scale Unemployment Farm could not sell their harvests, which led to businesses collapse. As a result, large scale unemployment occurred.

(i) A well-known pioneer of mass production was the car manufacturer, 'Henry Ford'.
(ii) He adopted an assembly line technique of a slaughter house.
(iii) He realized that the 'Assembly line' method would allow a faster and cheaper way of producing vehicles.
(iv) This method forced workers to repeat a single task mechanically and continuously.
(v) This was a way of increasing output per workers by speeding up the pace of work.
(vi) This doubling go daily wages was considered ' best cost-cutting decision' he had ever made.

(i) It was the first modern industrial was which involved industrial nations.
(ii) Machine guns, tanks, aircraft, chemical weapons ect., are used on a massive scale.
(iii) Unthinkable death and destruction.
(iv) Most of the people killed and injured were man of working age.
(v) Declined the household income.
(vi) Men were forced to join in the war.
(vii) Women slapped into undertake jobs which they were not used to.

(i) In the 19^th century, hundreds of thousands of Indians and Chinese laborers went to work on plantations in mines and in mines and in road and railways construction projects around the world.
(ii) In India, indentures laborers were hired under contracts which promises return travel to India after they had worked for five years on plantations.
(iii) Gradually in India cottage industries declined, land rents rose, land were cleared for mines and plantations. All this affected the lines of the poor. They failed to pay their rents become indebted, and were forced to migrate in search of work.
(iv) The main destinations of Indian indentured migrants were the Caribbean islands, Trinidad, Guyana, Surinam, Mauritius, Fiji and Ceylon and Malaya.
(v) Recruitment was done by agent engaged by employers and paid small commission.

Silk routes were existed since before the Christian era and flourished till the 15th century. The significance o/silk routes were as follows
1. The silk routes are good examples of pre-modern trade and cultural links between the distant parts of the world, i.e. linking Asia with Europe and North Africa.
2. Along the silk routes, the silk cargoes from China, Indian spices and textiles, gold and silver from Europe were carried to different parts of the world.
3. The Buddhist preachers, Christian missionaries and later on, Muslim preachers travelled along these routes.
4. These routes proved to be a great source of trade and cultural links between distant parts of the world.
Thus, it can be concluded that silk routes are a good example of trade and cultural link between distant parts of the world.

Under the pressure from industrialists and urban dwellers, the British Government abolished the Corn Laws. The effects of it were
(i) Food could be imported into Britain more cheaply than it would be produced within the country.
(ii) British agriculture was unable to compete with imports. Vast Areas of land were left uncultivated and people started migrated to cities or other countries.
(iii) As food prices fell, consumption in Britain rose. Faster industrial growth in Britain also led to higher incomes and therefore more food import.
(iv) Around the world in Eastern Europe, Russia, America and Australia land were cleared and food production expanded to meet the British demand.

(i) The silk scrapping of Corn Laws lead to free trade of food grains.
(ii) After the abolition of Corn Laws, food could be imported into Britain more cheaply than it could be produced within the country.
(iii) British farmers were unable to compete with imports. Vast areas of land were now left uncltivated and thousands of men and women were thrown out of work. They flocked to the cities or migrated overseas.
(iv) Increase in demand due to fall in prices and increase in income leads to mismatch between demand and supply of food grains.
(v) Many countries of the world like Russia. America and Australia and some eastern European countries started exporting food grains to Britain which gave further set back to the local producers.

Noodles

VS Naipaul is a Nobel Prize winning writer who is a descendant of indentured labour from India.

1929

South America

MNCs means Multinational Corporation are large companies that operate in more than one country.

Small Pox Germs